SIMBAD references

Compared to the diversity seen in exoplanets, Venus is a veritable astrophysical twin of the Earth; however, its global cloud layer truncates features in transmission spectroscopy, masking its non-Earth-like nature. Observational indicators that can distinguish an exo-Venus from an exo-Earth must therefore survive above the cloud layer. The above-cloud atmosphere is dominated by photochemistry, which depends on the spectrum of the host star and therefore changes between stellar systems. We explore the systematic changes in photochemistry above the clouds of Venus-like exoplanets orbiting K-dwarf or M-dwarf host stars, using a recently validated model of the full Venus atmosphere (0-115 km) and stellar spectra from the Measurements of the Ultraviolet Spectral Characteristics of Low-mass Exoplanetary Systems (MUSCLES) Treasury survey. SO₂, OCS, and H₂S are key gas species in Venus-like planets that are not present in Earth-like planets, and could therefore act as observational discriminants if their atmospheric abundances are high enough to be detected. We find that SO₂, OCS, and H₂S all survive above the cloud layer when irradiated by the coolest K dwarf and all seven M dwarfs, whereas these species are heavily photochemically depleted above the clouds of Venus. The production of sulfuric acid molecules that form the cloud layer decreases for decreasing stellar effective temperature. Less steady-state photochemical oxygen and ozone forms with decreasing stellar effective temperature, and the effect of chlorine-catalyzed reaction cycles diminish in favor of HO_x and SO_x catalyzed cycles. We conclude that trace sulfur gases will be prime observational indicators of Venus-like exoplanets around M-dwarf host stars, potentially capable of distinguishing an exo-Venus from an exo-Earth.